Table 5 Refined language questionnaire items

LQ01R

Students cannot think scientific ideas without language

LQ03R

Students cannot communicate scientific ideas without language

LQ05

Students are finding out about science by listening, reading, and writing about it

LQ07R

Students should be able to communicate their own ideas about what we have discussed in class

LQ12R

Producing language–writing, drawing, talking–is how students learn scientific knowledge

LQ18

Language is not only used to copy knowledge from the teacher or a textbook, but is also used to generate knowledge

LQ20R^a

Filling in worksheets or templates from the curriculum is the most important use of language in science class

LQ24R

Writing to different audiences helps students to deepen conceptual understanding

LQ100^a

Using multiple modes of representation would be confusing for students when we are learning science